Chapter 4: Project Life Cycle

Aim: To Describe the Project Life Cycle

The project manager and project team have one shared goal: to carry out the work of the project for the purpose of meeting the project’s objectives. Every project has an inception, a period during which activities move the project toward completion, and a closure (either successful or unsuccessful). Taken together, these phases represent the path a project takes from the beginning to its end and is generally called the project life cycle.

The project life cycle is often formally divided into phases that describe common activities as the project matures. The activities near the beginning of a project look different from activities closer to the end of the project. Most projects share activity characteristics as the project moves through its life cycle. You might see several questions on the exam that ask you to compare different phases in a project’s life cycle. In general, here are the common comparisons of early and late project life cycle activities:

• The least is known about the project near its beginning. As the project matures, more is learned about the project and the product it produces. This process is called progressive elaboration. As you learn more about the project, all plans and projections become more accurate.
• The level of uncertainty and risk is the highest at the beginning of a project. As more is learned about the project and more of the project’s work is completed, uncertainty and risk decreases.
• Stakeholders assert the greatest influence on the outcome of a project at the beginning. After the project starts, the stakeholder influence continually declines. Their influence to affect the project’s outcome is lowest towards the end of the project.
• Costs and personnel activity are both low at the beginning of a project, are high near the middle of the project, and tend to taper off to a low level as the project nears completion.
• The cost associated with project changes is at its lowest point at the project’s beginning. No work has been done, so changing is easy. As more and more work is completed, the cost of making any changes rises.

One of the more important relationships to understand throughout the project life cycle is the relationship between project knowledge and risk. As stated earlier, knowledge of a project increases as more work is done due to progressive elaboration, and risk decreases as the project moves toward completion.

Another important relationship present in a project’s life cycle is the relationship between the declining influence of stakeholders on the outcome of a project and the cost of changes and error corrections. Because little or no work has been accomplished near the beginning of a project, changes require few adjustments and are generally low in cost.
At the same time, stakeholders can assert their authority and make changes to the project’s direction. As more work is accomplished, the impact and cost of changes increase and leave stakeholders with fewer and fewer viable options to affect the project’s product.

The image below summarizes these relationships:

Although all projects are unique, they do share common components or processes that are normally grouped together. Below are the generally accepted process groups defined in the PMBOK:
• Initiating
• Planning
• Executing
• Controlling
• Closing

Moving from one phase in the life cycle to another is generally accompanied by a transfer of technical material or control from one group to another. Most phases officially end when the work from one phase is accepted as sufficient to meet that phase’s objectives and is passed onto the next phase. The work from one phase could be documentation, plans, components necessary for a subsequent phase, or any work product that contributes to the project’s objectives.

You can learn more about the Project Lifecycle by Clicking Here

Who Are the Stakeholders?

A project exists to satisfy a need or requirement. Without a need of some sort, a project is not necessary. Needs originate with one or more people; someone has to state a need. As a result, a project fills the need and likely affects some people or organizations. All people and organizations that have an interest in the project or its outcome are called project stakeholders. The stakeholders provide input to the requirements of the project and the direction the project should take throughout its life cycle.

The list of stakeholders can be large and can change as the project progresses. One of the first requirements to properly manage a project is the creation of a key stakeholder list. Be very careful to include all key stakeholders. Many projects have been derailed due to the political fallout of excluding a key stakeholder. Every potential stakeholder cannot be included in all aspects of a project, so it is important to identify the stakeholders who represent all other stakeholders.

Although it sounds easy to create a list of stakeholders, the ground reality is far from easy. You often need to ask many questions about many people to ensure you create a complete stakeholder list. Because stakeholders provide input for the project requirements and mould the image of the project and its expectations, it is vitally important that you be as persistent as necessary to identify all potential stakeholders. The Key stakeholders for any project would include

• Project manager - The person responsible for managing the project.
• Customer or user - The person or organization that will receive and use the project’s product or service.
• Performing organization - The organization that performs the work of the project.
• Project team members - The members of the team who are directly involved in performing the work of the project.
• Project management team - Project team members who are directly involved in managing the project.
• Sponsor - The person or organization that provides the authority and financial resources for the project.
• Influencers - People or groups not directly related to the project’s product but with the ability to affect the project in a positive or negative way.
• Project management office (PMO) - If the PMO exists, it can be a stakeholder if it has responsibility for the project’s outcome.

You can learn more about the Project Stakeholders by Clicking Here

The Project Manager

One of the most visible & Obvious stakeholders is the project manager. The project manager is the person responsible for managing the project and is a key stakeholder. Although the project manager is the most visible stakeholder, he does not have the ultimate authority or responsibility for any project. Senior management, specifically the project sponsor, has the ultimate authority for the project. Senior management issues the project charter and is responsible for the project itself. The project manager is granted the authority by senior management to get the job done and to resolve any issues that might arise during the course of the project.

You can learn more about the Roles & Responsibilities of a Project Manager by Clicking Here

Exam Watch:
You must have a clear understanding of the project manager’s roles and responsibilities for this exam. If you have a pdf version of the PMBOK, search for the word “Project Manager,” and look at all the responsibilities defined. Know what a project manager must do, should do, and should not do.

Managing Project Constraints

Managing projects is a continual process of balancing the various competing project variables, or constraints. Historically, project managers have focused on the three most common constraints of scope, time, and cost. But in reality, there are more than just three constraints. Each of the project constraints are related and have an effect on the outcome of the project. The project manager must manage the competing constraints to successfully complete a project. Too much attention on one generally means one or more of the others suffer. A major concern of the project manager is to ensure each of these variables is balanced with the others at all times. The project constraints include, but are not limited to

• Scope - How much work is to be done? Increasing the scope causes more work to be done, and vice versa.
• Quality - What quality standards must the project fulfill? Higher quality standards often require more work, impacting other constraints.
• Schedule - The time required to complete the project. Modifying the schedule alters the start and end dates for tasks in the project and can alter the project’s overall end date.
• Budget - The cost required to accomplish the project’s objectives. Modifying the cost of the project generally has an impact on the scope, time, or quality of the project.
• Resources - Resources that are available to conduct the work of the project.
• Risk - Each decision made in the planning and execution of a project comes with risk. Riskier decisions might have consequences that affect other constraints.

Any change to one of the variables has some effect on one, or several, of the remaining variables. Likewise, a change to any of the variables has an impact on the overall outcome of the project. The key to understanding the project constraints is that they are all interrelated. For example, if you decrease the cost of your project, it is likely that you decrease the quality and perhaps even increase the risk. With less money, less work gets done. Or, you might find that it takes more time to produce the same result with less money. Either way, a change to cost affects other variables.

Even though this concept is fairly straightforward, a project manager must stay on top of each one to ensure they are balanced. In addition to managing the project constraints, the project manager also is responsible for explaining the need for balance to the stakeholders. All too often, stakeholders favor one constraint over another. You have to ensure that the stakeholders understand the need for balancing all constraints.

Project Management Process Groups

Work executed during the project can be expressed in specific groups of processes. Each project moves through each of the groups of processes, some more than once. These common collections of processes that the PMBOK defines are called process groups. Process groups serve to group processes in a project that represent related tasks and mark a project’s migration toward completion.

Remember that the five process groups defined by the PMBOK are
• Initiating - Defines the project objectives and grants authority to the project manager
• Planning - Refines the project objectives and scope and plans the steps necessary to meet the project’s objectives
• Executing - Puts the project plan into motion and performs the work of the project
• Monitoring and Controlling - Measures the performance of the executing activities and compares the results with the project plan
• Closing - Documents the formal acceptance of the project’s product and brings all aspects of the project to a close

Understanding Project Life Cycle and Project Management Processes Relationships

The PMBOK defines 42 project processes, grouped into five process groups. These processes define the path a project takes through its life cycle. The processes are not linear; some overlap with one another. In fact, some processes are iterative and are executed multiple times in a single project. It is important to become comfortable with the process flow and how it defines the project life cycle.

Throughout the life of a project, different processes are needed at different times. A project starts with little activity. As the project comes to life, more tasks are executed and more processes are active at the same time. This high level of activity increases until nearing the completion of the project (or project phase). As the end nears, activity starts to diminish until the termination point is reached.

Processes, Process Groups, and Knowledge Areas

The best way to prepare for questions that test your knowledge of the project management processes is to know and understand each of the processes, along with its process group and knowledge area assignment.

You can learn more about the Processes, Process Groups & Knowledge Areas by Clicking Here. The details are available in a table format that is easy to understand.

Understanding Process Interaction Customization

The five process groups defined in the PMBOK are general in nature and common to projects. However, all projects are unique and some do not require all 42 individual project processes. The processes defined in the PMBOK are there for use when needed. You should need the majority of the processes to properly manage a project, but in some cases you will not require each process.

Because projects differ from one another, a specific process can differ dramatically between projects. For example, the process of developing a communication plan is simple and straightforward for a small project with local team members. However, the process is much more involved and complicated if the team is large and located in several countries.
Understand the five process groups and 42 processes as defined in the PMBOK. But, more importantly, understand when and how to use each process. The exam focuses more on process implementation than process memorization. Be prepared to really think about which processes you need for a particular project.

Prev: Chapter 3

Next: Chapter 5

Chapter 11: Understanding the Organizational Structure

In the previous chapter, we saw that an organizations policies and culture can have a significant impact on a project. Towards the end we also saw that, an organizations structure too would have an impact on a project. In this chapter, we are going to look closely at the organizational structure.

So, lets get started!!!

Organizational Structure

To do your job efficiently and effectively, you must figure out what kind of organizational structure you are in. Excepting the hand full of people who own the companies, the rest of us are all working class. We work for some company and get paid. Every individual must understand his/her organizations structure in order to blend into the organization as well as to carry out his/her duties without any issues.

Now, you as the project manager too are part of some organization and your organizations structure has a direct bearing on the project that you manage. So it is imperative that, you as the project manager understand the various structures an organization could take.

From the perspective of structure, organizations fall into three categories:
1. Functional organizations
2. Projectized organizations and
3. Matrix organizations.

Functional Organizations

A functional organization has a traditional organizational structure in which each functional department, such as engineering, marketing, and sales, is a separate entity. Look at the pictorial representation below:

As you can see, there are distinct departments and each has a manager and a set of staff who work for him. Each of these managers in turn report to someone higher up in the ladder, for ex: The CEO.

Depending on the size of the organization, there could be a hierarchy within these manager and other designations like director, managing director etc could be available who in turn report up to the CEO or the owner of the company.

The scope of a project in a functional organization is usually limited to the boundaries of the functional department. Therefore, each department runs its projects largely independent of other departments. When a communication needs to occur between two departments, it is carried through the hierarchy of functional managers.

For Ex: If someone from the Sales team needs to communicate with someone in the Marketing team, he would route it through the Sales Manager who in turn will route the information through the Marketing Manager.

All the managerial power or authority in simple terms, in a functional organization is vested in the functional managers, who control the team members’ performance evaluations, salaries, bonuses, hiring, and firing.

The Project Managers are held responsible for the project results even though they have little say over resource assignments and holding team members accountable for their work. (Because the power lies with the functional manager) As a result, project managers in a functional organization are often frustrated. Their work is, at best, challenging. You, as a project manager in a functional organization, can benefit greatly from your good relationships with functional managers and team members. Networking and leadership are the key points to your success in a functional organization.

A project manager in a functional organization has the following attributes:

• The project manager’s role and the project team are part-time.
• There is little or no authority over anything: resource assignments, team members, and so on.
• The project manager reports directly to a functional manager.
• There is little or no administrative staff to help with the project.

Projectized Organization

A projectized organization’s structure is organized around projects. Most of the organization’s resources are devoted to the projects. Look at the pictorial representation below:

As you can see, the project team members report directly to the project manager who has a great deal of independence and authority (Imagine the structure in the Functional Organization) He reports directly to the CEO and has great control over his team and especially on what happens to his team members (Unlike the functional structure where the team is at the mercy of the functional manager)

Along with the responsibility comes the high level of autonomy over the projects. The projects managers are a happy bunch of people in a Projectized organization. The functional and projectized organizations are like north and south poles of a magnet.

A project manager in a projectized organization has the following attributes:

• The project manager is full-time.
• The project manager has full authority over the project team.
• There is full-time administrative staff to help with the project.

Matrix Organization

A matrix organization is organized into functional departments, but a project is run by a project team, with members coming from different functional departments. Look at the pictorial representation below:

As you can see the project managers are a separate group and do not have any clash of interests like in a functional organization with the functional managers.
On the spectrum of a project manager’s authority, matrix organizations are in the middle of two extremes: functional and projectized organizations.

The matrix organizations are generally categorized into a strong matrix, which is closer to projectized structure; a weak matrix, which is closer to functional structure; and a balanced matrix, which is in the middle of strong and weak.


Let us Summarize the influences of the different organizational structures on a Project.

Influences of Organizational Structures on Projects

Project Characteristic	Functional	Matrix	Projectized
Project manager’s authority	None to little	Limited to high	High to full
Project manager’s role	Part-time	Part-time to full-time	Full-time
Project management administrative staff	None to part-time	Part-time to full-time	Full-time
Project budget controlled by	Functional manager	Functional manager, project manager, or both	Project manager
Resource availability	None to little	Limited to high	High to full

Let us wrap up this chapter by Summarizing the influence of various types of matrix organizations on a project.

Influences of Matrix Organizational Structures on Projects

Project Characteristic	Weak	Balanced	Strong
Project manager’s authority	Limited	Low to moderate	Moderate to high
Project manager’s role	Part-time	Full-time	Full-time
Project management administrative staff	Part-time	Part-time	Full-time
Project budget controlled by	Functional manager	Functional manager, project manager, or both	Project manager
Resource availability	Little	Low to moderate	Moderate to high

We have explored the three basic organizational structures. In the real world, some organizations use a hybrid (mix) of these structures to meet their varied needs. For example, a functional organization may run a specific project just like it would be run in a projectized organization. Such organizations are called composite organizations.

Obviously, organizational structure and organizational culture heavily determine the project environment. Two other important factors that influence the project environment are enterprise environmental factors and organizational process assets. We will be looking at these in the next chapter.

Previous: Organizational Influence on Projects

Next: Environmental Factors & Process Assets

Chapter 9: The Most Influential Stakeholder

In the previous chapter, we took a look at all the people who maybe stakeholders in a project and can have a positive or negative impact on a project. In this chapter, we are going to look at the most influential stakeholder in a project, the person on whom a bulk of the weight of the projects success or failure rests on…

So, lets get started!!!

Who is this Most Influential Stakeholder?

Well the answer is YOU

You, the project manager, are a very special project stakeholder yourself. The job (role) of a project manager is extremely challenging and thereby exciting. Depending on the organizational structure of your organization, you may be reporting to a functional manager, a program manager, a portfolio manager, or to some other manager or executive. Nevertheless, it is your responsibility to work with your team and other relevant individuals and groups, such as program managers and portfolio managers, to bring all the pieces together and make the project happen i.e., to achieve the project objectives.

To do this, you need a range of skills and capabilities. They are:

1. Communication
2. Negotiation
3. Problem Solving
4. Influencing
5. Leadership

Let us take a look at these skills, one by one.

Communication

The importance of communication in project management cannot be overemphasized. Even a well scheduled and well funded project can fail in the hands of a hardworking team of experts due to the lack of proper communication. As a project manager, you might be dealing with a wide variety of individuals, ranging from executives, to marketing personnel, to hardcore technologists. You should be able to wear different communication hats depending upon whom you are communicating with. For example, you will not be using technical jargon to talk to executives or marketing folks, and you will not speak marketing terms to the software developers.

You will be speaking to different stakeholders in their language, while filling the language gap between different functional groups and eliminating misunderstandings due to miscommunication. The key point is that you put on the appropriate communication hat depending on which individual you are dealing with. You, as the project manager must be able to switch communication hats quickly and avoid technical jargon and acronyms that are not understood by the person or group with whom you are communicating. The goal is clarity of the language to convey the message accurately.

You will be communicating throughout the project. So, for any project, you must develop a communication strategy that addresses the following issues:

1. What needs to be communicated?
2. With whom do you want to communicate?
3. How do you want to communicate or what is the medium of communication?
4. What is the outcome of your communication?

The answer to all of the above questions would vary depending on the situation and the mode that the other party is most comfortable with. Some users might like email while some prefer a face to face meeting. You, as the project manager must take the judgment call and choose the best mode such that all the parties are happy. Also, You need to monitor your communication and its results to see what works and what does not, so you can improve communication.

Negotiation

A negotiation is give and take, with the goal of generating a win-win outcome for both parties. You might need to negotiate at any stage of the project lifecycle. A good negotiator can resolve a conflict between two people and make them both feel that, they have won.
Here are some examples of negotiations:

1. Negotiating with stakeholders regarding expectations during the project planning. For example, the suggested deadline for the project schedule might not be practical, or you might need a certain type or quantity of resources to make it happen.
2. Negotiating with functional managers to obtain human resources, such as software developers.
3. Negotiating with team members for specific job assignments and possibly during conflict resolution among the team members.
4. Negotiating changes to the project schedule, budget, or both because a stakeholder proposed changes to the project objectives.
5. Negotiating with external vendors in procurement. However, in contract negotiations, representatives from the legal department might be involved.

Problem Solving

Project-related problems might occur among the stakeholders or with the projects. Most commonly problems come up within the project team. Either way, they are there to damage the project. Your task is to identify the problem early enough and to solve it. Here is the general technique for accomplishing this:

1. Look for early warning signs by paying close attention to formal progress reports and to what the team members say and do regarding the project.
2. Once you identify a potential problem, do your homework. Understand and identify the problem clearly by collecting more information without passing judgment.
3. Once the problem and its causes are clearly identified, work with the appropriate stakeholders, such as project team members, to explore multiple solutions.
4. Evaluate the multiple solutions and choose the one you will implement.
The key point throughout the problem-solving process is to focus on the problem, not on the individuals, with the goal of finding the solution in order to help the project succeed. There should be no finger-pointing. At the end of the day the success of the project should be your goal.

Influencing

Influencing means getting individuals or groups to do what you want them to do without necessarily having formal authority to mandate an outcome from them. This is increasingly becoming an essential management skill in today’s world. People no longer appreciate authoritative bosses and they tend to rebel or under perform if we try to exercise control on them. But, if we can influence them, then they will not only do what you want but also be happy about it. To exercise influence, you must understand the formal and informal structure of your organization. Again, you might need to use influencing when you are dealing with any aspect of the project—for example, controlling changes to the project, negotiating schedule or resource assignments, resolving conflicts, and so on.

Leadership

In the traditional organizational structure, project managers do not have formal authority over the project team members who perform the teamwork. So you have no other choice than to manage by leadership and not by authority. The good news is that managing by leadership is more effective and productive than managing by authority anyway. A project team is generally a group of individuals coming together for the lifetime of the project from different functional groups with different skills and experience. They need a leader to show them the vision and to excite, inspire, and motivate them toward the goals and the objectives of the project. You, the project manager, are that leader. You can lead your team in the right path to ensure the success of the project.

The Golden Triplet

PMI recommends that in addition to the skills related to application areas and management, an effective project manager must have the following three characteristics:
1. Knowledge - knowledge of project management.
2. Performance - The ability to use the knowledge to perform the project i.e., to make accomplishments and get the job done.
3. Personal - This relates to the behavior of the project manager while performing the project and the related activities. This includes personal effectiveness, attitude, ethics and leadership.

In other words, an effective project manager uses personal abilities, such as a positive attitude, leadership skills, good ethics and professional behavior to apply project management knowledge effectively in order to lead the project to success.


Previous: Project Stakeholders

Next: Organizational Influence on Projects

Chapter 8: Project Stakeholders

In the previous chapters, we have been using the term Project Stakeholders repeatedly and we havent had any clear cut definition or description as to who these people are. Well, you need to look no further, we are going to do it right away in this chapter.

So, lets get started!!!

Who are the Project Stakeholders?

Project stakeholders are individuals and organizations whose interests are affected (positively or negatively) by the project execution and completion. In other words, a project stakeholder has something to gain from the project or lose to the project. Accordingly, the stakeholders fall into two categories—positive stakeholders, who will normally benefit from the success of the project, and negative stakeholders, who see some form of disadvantage coming from the project. The implications obviously are that the positive stakeholders would like to see the project succeed and the negative stakeholder’s would be happy if the project was delayed or even better cancelled.

For ex: let us say, your state government wants to build a Government Hospital in your city. It is a good thing right? You, the citizens of your city and the chief minister are all positive stakeholders of this project. Lets say there is a private Hospital in the city that is having a thriving business currently. They would be negative stakeholders because, if the government hospital comes up, their business will be affected and hence they would be happy if the government scraps its project.

Negative stakeholders are often overlooked by the project manager and the project team, which increases the project risk. Ignoring positive or negative project stakeholders will have a damaging impact on the project. Therefore, it’s important that you, as the project manager, start identifying the project stakeholders early on in the project. The different project stakeholders can have different and conflicting expectations, which you need to analyze and manage.

Identifying Project Stakeholders

Identifying all the project stakeholders might be a difficult task, but the following are the obvious stakeholders in any project:

1. Project manager - Include yourself first. The project manager in charge of the project, in the list of the stakeholders to start with.
2. Project management office (PMO) - If your organization has a PMO, and it is directly or indirectly responsible for the outcome of a project, then the PMO is a stakeholder in that project.
3. Project team - This team consists of the project manager, the project management team, and the individuals who perform the work of the project to produce the project outcome. This team may consist of individuals from different groups and departments with different subject matter expertise and skills.
4. Program manager - If your project is part of a program, then the program manager is certainly a stakeholder of your project.
5. Portfolio managers - A portfolio manager is an individual who performs high-level management (governance) of a set of projects or programs and interfaces between the projects/programs and the business strategy of the organization for which the projects and programs are being run.
6. Portfolio review board - A portfolio review board is a committee that selects and rejects the projects by reviewing them for factors such as the project value, return on investment, and risks involved in performing the project.
7. Functional managers - These are the individuals who play the management roles within administrative or functional areas of the organization. For example, the VP of marketing is a functional manager and so is the director of engineering. The level of authority depends on their position in the hierarchy and also the organizational structure. For example, if you are using resources that are under a functional manager, that functional manager is a stakeholder of your project.
8. Operational management - These are the individuals who are performing management roles in the operational areas of the organization. For example, the director of IT, who is responsible for maintaining the computer network that your team is using, is a stakeholder in your project. Depending on your project, you might be handing over the product of the project to an operations group that will be responsible for providing the long-term support for it.
9. Sellers – Sellers are entities external to the performing organization, such as contractors and suppliers, who enter into a contractual agreement with the performing organization to provide certain components for the project. These components are the products, services, or results that you procure.
10. Business Partners - Business partners are the external organizations that fill a specific role for the project, such as installing the product of the project, providing training and support for the product, or providing specialized expertise for the project. Business partners are different from vendors in that they have a special ongoing relationship with the organization, which sometimes is attained by satisfying some requirements, such as certifications.
11. Customer/user - In general, customers are the entity that will acquire the project’s outcome, such as product, and users are the entity that will use the product. In some cases the customers and users may be the same entity, and in other cases there may be a whole chain (with different layers) of customers and users.
12. Project sponsor - This is the individual or group that provides financial resources for the project. A sponsor has a major stake in the project and may perform an active role in the project team from time to time.

Following are some of the functions of a sponsor:

1. The sponsor champions the project when it’s conceived. This includes gathering support for the project by performing actions such as acting as project spokesperson to the higher-level management and spelling out the benefits of the project.
2. The sponsor leads the project through the selection process until the project is finally authorized, at which point the leadership role goes to the project manager.
3. The sponsor plays an important role in developing the initial project scope and charter.
4. The sponsor serves as an authority and a catalyst for issues beyond the control of project managers, such as authorizing some critical changes and other yes/no decisions.

Identifying Other Stakeholders

We have just identified the easy bunch of stakeholders that every project would have. In addition to these key stakeholders, who are easy to identify, there can be a number of other stakeholders, who might be more difficult to identify, inside and outside your organization. Depending upon the project, these might include investors, sellers, contractors, family members of the project team members, government agencies, media outlets, lobbying organizations, individual citizens, and a whole myriad of other individuals who might have an interest in this project and its outcome.

While dealing with the stakeholders, the keyword is influence. Watch out for influencers who are not direct customers or users of the product or service that will come from the project, but who can influence the course of the project due to their position in the customer organization or the performing organization. The influence can be positive or negative.

So, not only are the stakeholders affected positively and negatively by the project, but the project can also be impacted positively or negatively by them. It is critical for the success of the project that you identify positive and negative stakeholders early on in the project, understand and analyze their varying and conflicting expectations, and manage those expectations throughout the project.

Trivia:

Do not confuse the project management team with the project team. The project management team consists of individuals involved in the project management tasks. It is a subset of the project team, which includes the members of the project management team and also other members, such as those who perform the actual work of the project.

In the next chapter, we shall take a look at one of the most important and influential stakeholder in any project. The person who can make or break the project.

Previous: Project Management Knowledge Areas

Next: The Most Influential Stakeholder